“Fungi’s Future: Climate-Driven Fungal Adaptations and Their Effects on Human Populations” by Nova Brown

Fungi’s Future: Climate-Driven Fungal Adaptations and Their Effects on Human Populations

Nova Brown, University of St. Joseph

Abstract

Microbial communities help form the base of ecosystem resilience. Fungi’s interconnected nature has impacts that are widely spread throughout many ecosystems through the effects of climate change and human involvement. A rise in temperature and other environmental effects of climate change have been reshaping the future of fungi’s genetics and ecology. Under these harsh conditions, fungi such as Candida auris, Aspergillus fumigatus, Coccidioides immitis, and Emergomyces canadensis have evolved specific adaptations for survival, including thermotolerance, expansion of habitat, and an accelerated genetic mutation rate causing higher resistance to antifungal pharmaceuticals. Changes like these will raise the risk to human health and harm the ecological balance with fungi. In this literature review, potential strategies, including fungal surveillance and ways to counter the negative interactions of recent pathogenic fungal adaptations, will be discussed along with current mitigation efforts. 

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Introduction

Climate change, specifically the rise in temperatures through human influence, has acted as a selective pressure that accelerates fungal adaptation. Climate change has affected ecosystems through inconsistent and rising temperatures, changes in pH in the soil and water, and poor air quality (Bidartondo & Ellis, 2018). Fungi are most commonly categorized by spore production into ascomycetes and basidiomycetes (McGinnis & Tyring, 2019). Fungi are also categorized by interactions with hosts and the environment, presenting in pathogenic and nonpathogenic forms. Nonpathogenic fungi have been a foundational member of the ecosystem as decomposers that contribute to the biogeochemical cycles; pathogenic fungi function differently. Pathogenic fungi are also free-living organisms that live on dead plant or animal material in the same way as nonpathogenic fungi but can also function and thrive by invading a host. Fungi enter the desired host through lesions or inhalation and then secrete enzymes like keratinases to digest host cells to create a sustainable food source, similarly to how nonpathogenic fungi decompose organic materials in the soil (El-Gendi et al., 2022). While fungi are critical decomposers and components of the nutrient cycle, their rapid adaptive capacity under climate change stress raises concern. With the rapid pathogenic fungal adaptations, there has been a slow rise in the destabilization of soil fertility and overall microbial interactions (Bidartondo et al., 2018). 

Climate change has increasingly been recognized as a key element of biological adaptations, particularly among microorganisms (Bidartondo & Ellis, 2018). Many microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, with rapid generation times have flexible genomes (El-Gendi et al., 2022). Fungi in particular exhibit short generations, large population sizes, and highly adaptive genomes that are capable of rapid mutation, recombination, and gene regulation. These characteristics allow survival traits to occur and spread quickly throughout a fungal species when there is heavy selective pressure in the immediate environment. Shifts in global temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and shifts in soil and water pH have begun to reshape micro-ecosystems worldwide (Bidartondo & Ellis, 2018). These changes have been shown to be connected to human environmental activity that has contributed to accelerated fungal adaptations. This has created selective pressures that enable fungi such as Candida auris, Aspergillus fumigatus, Coccidioides immitis, and Emergomyces canadensis to enhance specific traits to survive. These adaptations, such as increased heat tolerance, geographic expansion potential, and antifungal resistance, then negatively affect human health and overall biodiversity (CDC, 2024b). These changes not only elevate risks to human health but can also disrupt the ecological and agricultural balance and the symbiotic relationship with fungi. 

Like most microorganisms, fungi are malleable to the environment around them. When that environment changes, the fungi must also change. Fungi like C. auris, E. canadensis, A. fumigatus, and Cocci. immitis will adapt and thrive in changing environmental conditions. Rising temperatures can act as a filter, favoring the fungi that can tolerate hotter temperatures. Fungi like A. fumigatus and Cocci. immitis are thermotolerant fungi that can grow at temperatures above 50°C (122 °F) (Mead et al., 2020). Therefore, as pathogenic fungi adapt to hotter temperatures, they have become an increasing threat to mammalian health, in particular human health. These pathogenic fungi already pose a significant risk to public health and only create a greater risk of widespread infection as a result of further adaptations. The thermal barrier that acts as a natural defense for mammals has been penetrated by fungi that are able to withstand hotter temperatures that cause deadly outbreaks, as seen with C. auris (Casadevall et al., 2021). Agricultural fungicide use and urbanization also introduce chemical pressures that can further select and filter resistant strains, though temperature and pH changes are one of the driving causes of modern fungal adaptation. 

From an epidemiological perspective, adaptive fungi have had direct and measurable consequences for mammalian health. Increased incidence of fungal infections and/or treatment failures and the emergence of E. canadensis indicate that environmental adaptations directly impact clinical outcomes (Schwartz et al., 2018). The impact of climate change is expected to result in higher fungal thermotolerance, increased antifungal resistance, and a greater geographic distribution of different fungal populations (Schwartz et al., 2019). Over successive generations, these traits will become increasingly prevalent and can reshape specific fungal population behavior that will affect mammalian populations and overall public health. 

Methods

A literature-based comparative analysis was conducted by focusing on peer-reviewed journals, government reports, and epidemiological surveillance data that were published between 2018 and 2025. These sources were selected for their relevance to climate change effects, fungal adaptation, pathogenic fungal thermotolerance, antifungal resistance patterns, fungal geographic expansion, and disease incidence rates. Data were collected from studies that also specifically looked at Candida auris, Aspergillus fumigatus, Coccidioides immitis, and Emergomyces canadensis. For each fungal species, climate-related variables like rising temperature, drought frequency, and precipitation patterns were noted. 

Correlation analyses were performed to identify relationships between climate factors and fungal emergence and infection rates. Because information collected came from multiple verified sources instead of a single experimental dataset, results and conclusions were interpreted as evidence of association rather than a direct causation. 

Results

Published epidemiological studies consistently demonstrate an association between increasing temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and rising incidence of pathogenic fungi Candida auris, Aspergillus fumigatus, Coccidioides immitis, and Emergomyces canadensis. 

Climate Variable	Fungal Response
Rising temperature	Increased thermotolerance
High drought periods	Soil disruption and spore concentration fluctuate
Heavy rainfall after drought	Increased fungal growth
Dust storms	Increased spore dispersal
Warm winters	Geographic expansion

Table 1: Correlation between environmental changes and how fungi respond to changes.

Fungi are responsive to their environment and whatever changes it will undergo and will therefore adapt quickly in order to survive. If a fungus’s environment, pathogenic or non-pathogenic, changes, that organism will have to change with it in order to survive (Camponuri et al., 2024; CDC, 2024b). 

Figure 1: NOAA reports show an increase in global temperature anomalies. 

Analysis of NOAA climate data demonstrates a consistent warming trend from 2016 to 2024, culminating in record global temperatures in 2023 and 2024. 2024 was 1.29°C above the 20th-century average, surpassing 2023 (1.18°C). Collectively, these findings suggest a strong association between increasing global temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and the emergence or expansion of pathogenic fungi (National Centers for Environmental Information, 2025). 

Figure 2: Map showing global distribution of Candida auris into four clades (Chow et al., 2020)

Chow et al. (2020) explained how C. auris has expanded globally and has adapted to different climates and weather patterns. The phylogenetic tree of C. auris has been best categorized into four clades based on their adaptive efforts that have altered their genome sequences for best survivability. The map (b) details each clade in their distribution in high-concentration areas in different countries. 

Discussion

While fictional portrayals of fungal adaptation exaggerate the threat through a zombie apocalypse, modern medical and ecological research explains the rising occurrence (Backman, 2023). Pathogenic fungi that can adapt rapidly under climate pressure could endanger both microorganisms and other higher life forms. Epidemiological surveillance, clinical case studies, and genomic analyses demonstrate that climate change is and will reshape fungal behavior, distribution, and pathogenicity (George et al., 2025). This adaptive change is then represented in a growing health concern as these conditions increase the fungi's potential to become more pathogenic to mammals. Fungi are suited for rapid adaptive changes due to their short generation times, large population, and highly plastic genomes. Rising global temperatures act as a filter that favors fungal strains capable of surviving heat stress (Naranjo-Ortiz & Gabaldon, 2019). 

A change in precipitation patterns and soil pH then further filter fungal strains (Bidartondo et al., 2018). The use of fungicides and human pollution compound these climate change-driven filters and accelerate the emergence of more resistant and thermotolerant fungal strains (van Rhijn & Rhodes, 2025). These conditions help drive genetic drift by eliminating susceptible strains, therefore allowing resistant ones to dominate local populations, reducing genetic diversity while increasing resistance traits in a growing fungal population. These selective pressures reduce the number of strains of pathogenic fungi, enabling smaller and specific strains to survive mammalian body temperatures. Casadevall et al. (2021) have shown more fungal species exhibiting thermotolerance at or above 37°C, a threshold that historically limited fungal infections in mammals. Thus, Candida auris, Aspergillus fumigatus, Coccidioides immitis, and Emergomyces canadensis have been expanding geographically, therefore increasing the incidence of fungal infections globally. 

Candida auris

Candida auris was first identified in Japan in 2009 and has since been seen across multiple continents, exhibiting higher levels of multidrug resistance (Benham & Scullin, 2019). Unlike other pathogenic fungi, C. auris can survive and multiply at temperatures close to or exceeding mammalian body temperatures. This trait increases a fungus's ability to infect humans. Casadevall et al. (2021) suggest that because of rising global temperatures, the thermal barrier that once protected mammals from most pathogenic fungal infections has been eroded by how the protective effects of fungal adaptations have been impacted. Following this idea, C. auris has now been enabled to act as a human pathogen. 

Climate change has played a key role in C. auris' adaptive progress. Phylogenetic analysis conducted by Chow et al. (2020) has identified four major clades, which have been historically organized as the South Asian (Clade I), East Asian (Clade II), African (Clade III), and South American (Clade IV) clades. However, recent fungal monitoring and genomic analyses have shown growing genetic complexity with specific isolates in countries like Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. This pattern shows that Candida auris has been independently introduced to these areas along with localized adaptations to different environmental factors (like temperature, pH, and incidence rate). Epidemiologically, C. auris presents a public health threat because of quick transmission rates and resistance to many antifungal drug classes (Benham & Scullin, 2019). As global temperatures increase, C. auris could have the ability to colonize hospitals that are ill-equipped and unprepared for such a public health threat.

Aspergillus fumigatus

Aspergillus fumigatus is a common fungus and often fatal in the form of invasive aspergillosis. Invasive Aspergillosis (IA) is an infection caused by A. fumigatus affecting those who are immunocompromised (Mayo Clinic, 2022). Korfanty et al. (2023) have shown that A. fumigatus has been adapting to hotter temperatures in response to rising global temperatures that are caused by climate change. These different strains that were collected from different parts of the world suggest that there is a present adaptive shift towards higher thermotolerance in A. fumigatus caused by climate change stressors. 

In addition to thermotolerance, A. fumigatus has become more resistant to antifungal pharmaceuticals. Van Rhijn & Rhodes (2023) have linked antifungal resistance, specifically azole antifungals, to agricultural fungicides. Overall exposure to azole compounds allows for the selection of resistant fungal strains, resulting in a higher antifungal-resistant population that can then affect human populations. Epidemiologically, having a high antifungal-resistant fungal population leads to increased death rates and a reduced rate of antifungal treatments (George et al., 2025). A. fumigatus exemplifies patterns of how climate change and human involvement influence fungal adaptations that cause public health concerns.

Coccidioides immitis

Coccidioides immitis is the fungus that causes the illness of coccidioidomycosis, better known as Valley fever. The transmission of this illness is through breathing in the fungal spores, allowing them to grow in the lungs of its victims. This infection is not commonly fatal and cannot be transmitted from person to person (Mayo Clinic, 2023). This fungus, however, demonstrates how climate change can influence fungal geography and disease dynamics. Historically, Valley Fever has been confined to southwest regions of the US. However, because of rising temperatures, prolonged drought seasons, and increased dust storms, Valley Fever has expanded further (CDC, 2024b). These changes then facilitate the wider dispersal of coccidioidomycosis spores, therefore increasing human exposure to the infection. 

Some strains of C. immitis that originated in hotter climates have a higher thermotolerance and have been seen to have the ability to survive heat waves and temperatures close to the human body temperature of 37 degrees C (Mead et al., 2020). Camponuri et al. (2025) further demonstrated that periods of drought to heavy rain in California correlate with an increased Valley Fever incidence. Wet periods promote fungal growth, and the dry periods allow the spores to be dispersed. This has resulted in a growing number of cases in southwest regions that previously have had little to no cases of Valley Fever.

Emergomyces canadensis 

Emergomyces canadensis is an emerging fungal pathogen that has been closely linked to environmental disruption. This dimorphic fungus causes emergomycosis, a systemic and often fatal infection that mainly affects immunocompromised populations (Schwartz et al., 2018). Schwartz et al. (2018) examined the global emergence of Emergomyces species in response to climate change stressors. These stressors were seen in disruptions in both the carbon and nitrogen cycles, soil pH, and rising temperatures, creating the "perfect storm" that favored the adaptation of fungi to exhibit new pathogenic forms like E. canadensis. This fungus poses a public health concern because of its ability to spread quickly to different organ systems and its resistance to standard antifungal treatments (Schwartz et al., 2019). E. canadensis and how it spreads is a telling issue on how climate change and pollution have changed and will change fungi life. 

Potential Solutions

There has been a focus on research to understand and track climate-driven fungal adaptations through surveillance and genomic modeling. Nearing et al. (2017) further prove how climate plays a key role in the distribution, composition, and overall diversity of fungi by emphasizing the need for more research on climate change-driven fungal adaptations. Because fungi exist at the intersection of ecosystem stability and disease emergence, triage responses and strategies must be beyond treatment-based solutions within public health systems and environmental conservation efforts. One of the most immediate and actionable solutions should be the expansion of global fungal monitoring efforts. Current monitoring of fungal diseases remains inconsistent and detached from one another, especially in areas newly affected by changing fungal regions because of hotter temperatures and changed weather patterns (George et al., 2025). As fungal endemic areas expand, as seen with the Coccidioides species, early detection can be helpful for predicting outbreaks of Valley Fever (Gorris et al., 2019). Integrating a fungal surveillance system that is powered by global lab work, data collection, and analysis may be helpful in understanding the trajectory of how pathogenic fungi will adapt to different environmental conditions.  

Another strategy would involve addressing and conducting additional research into antifungal resistance in the environment. Widespread fungicide use in agriculture heavily contributes to the development of resistant strains like A. fumigatus (van Rhijn and Rhodes, 2025). Agricultural practices should be improved through stricter regulations on agricultural fungicides, while finding a way to support farmers to do so. A transition away from agricultural fungicides to biological controls that still help farmers maintain their crop yield can help reduce some selective pressures that allow fungi to adapt quickly.

From a biomedical perspective, compared to bacterial or viral pathogens, fungi remain significantly understudied despite the growing threat. Investment in immunotherapies and treatment development could improve the outcomes for vulnerable populations who face a higher mortality rate from invasive fungal infections (George et al., 2025). Additionally, understanding fungal enzymes and metabolic pathways could offer more opportunities for targeted therapies (El-Gendi et al., 2022). Along with biomedical research, public education is underutilized in solutions to mitigating fungal adaptation effects. Many fungal infections, like Valley Fever, are environmentally acquired (Mayo Clinic, 2023). Raising awareness among vulnerable populations and impacted populations like farmers can help reduce exposure. Education campaigns also need to address the common misconception that fungal diseases are rare or geographically limited, as climate change has been seen to rapidly disprove these assumptions. 

Climate mitigation itself is also a direct way to intervene with climate-driven fungal adaptations. Limiting warming trends through reducing emissions from major gas and oil companies could slow the evolutionary pressures that drive fungi to adapt toward mammalian survivability (Casadevall et al., 2021). Without addressing the cause of some pathogenic fungal adaptations, there can be no progress in finding and implementing solutions. These solutions highlight that combating fungal emergence, worldwide and in the US, is not solely a medical or personal challenge, but a systemic one. Preventing and triaging the future expansion of pathogenic fungi requires coordinated action within government and conservation systems. 

Conclusion

Fungal adaptations bring a larger ecological consequence, as fungi are foundational to an ecosystem's stability. Climate change is creating conditions where fungi can disrupt the regulation of nutrient cycles (Bidartondo et al., 2018). Wildlife and human populations alike have become more vulnerable to diseases like aspergillosis, candidiasis, valley fever, and emerging infections from emergomycosis (CDC, 2024b). Drug-resistant fungi and the constant use of fungicides, along with external climate factors, have allowed fungi to adapt and have a higher rate of disease incidence (van Rhijn & Rhodes, 2025). The rapid adaptation and spread of different fungal species prove the urgent need for better global surveillance and monitoring of fungal incidence reports, antifungal control, and continued research into specific mechanisms that help drive fungal resilience in changing climates. This rapid adaptation and spread of pathogenic fungi demonstrate another effect of climate change and human influence. Thermotolerance, geographic expansion, and antifungal resistance are factors in which fungi are adapting to survive against climate change stressors. 

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